Notes from ARRL Emergency Communications Course for Handiham Daisy Book Formatting
Radio Camp 2008
What is a Communication Emergency? A communication emergency exists when a critical communication system failure puts the public at risk. A variety of circumstances can overload or damage critical day-to-day communication systems. It could be a storm that knocks down telephone lines or radio towers, a massive increase in the use of a communication system that causes it to become overloaded, or the failure of a key component in a system that has widespread consequences. Examples are easily found. Violent storms and earthquakes can knock down communication facilities. Critical facilities can also be damaged in "normal" circumstances: underground cables are dug up, fires occur in telephone equipment buildings, or a car crash knocks down a key telephone pole. Hospital or 911 telephone systems can fail. Even when no equipment fails, a large-scale emergency such as a chemical or nuclear accident can result in more message traffic than the system was designed to handle. Some emergency operations can occur in areas without any existing communication systems, such as with backcountry searches or fires. What makes a good emcomm volunteer? Emcomm volunteers come from a wide variety of backgrounds and with a range of skills and experience. The common attributes that all effective volunteers share are a desire to help others without personal gain of any kind, the ability to work as a member of a team, and to take direction from others. Emcomm volunteers need to be able to think and act quickly, under the stress and pressure of an emergency. Where do you fit in? Amateur Radio operators have been a communication resource in emergency situations ever since there has been radio. Someone once described hams as "communication commandos." To the agencies they serve, Amateurs are their immediately available communication experts. Amateurs have the equipment, the skills, and the frequencies necessary to create expedient emergency communication networks under poor conditions. They are licensed and pre-authorized for national and international communication. Hams have the ability to rapidly enlarge their communication capacity to meet growing needs in an emergency, something commercial and public safety systems cannot do. Many of the skills are the same ones used in everyday ham activities. However, just having radios, frequencies, and basic radio skills is not enough. Certain emergency communication skills are very different from those you use in your daily ham radio life. Courses like this one help fill that need, as do local training programs and regular emergency exercises. Without specific emergency communication skills, you can easily become part of the problem rather than part of the solution. As you might expect, technical and operating skills are critical. Just as important, though, is your ability to function as a team player within your own organization, and the organization you are serving. Those critical skills will also be covered in this course. What you are not As important as what you are, is what you are not. There are limits to your responsibilities as an emergency communicator, and it is important to know where to draw the line. You are not a "first responder." Except in rare cases of serendipity, you will seldom be first on the scene. You do not need flashing lights and sirens, gold badges, or fancy uniforms. In most cases, beyond reporting the situation to the proper authorities, hams have little usefulness as communicators at the onset of an emergency. You have no authority. In most cases, you cannot make decisions for others, or make demands on the agency you serve or any other agency. The only decisions you can make are whether to participate or not, and those affecting your own health and safety. You cannot do it all. When the agency you are helping runs short of doctors, cooks, or traffic cops, it is not your job to fill the void. In most cases, you are not trained for it. That does not mean you cannot lend a hand to fill an urgent need when you are qualified to do so, or perform other jobs for the served agency of which communication is an integral part, and for which you are trained and capable. You are not in charge. You are there to temporarily fulfill the needs of an agency whose communication system is unable to do its job. They tell you what they need, and you do your best to comply. "Day-to-Day" Versus "Emergency" Communication In your daily ham radio life, there is no pressure to get any particular message through. You do things at your leisure, and no one's life depends upon you. In an emergency all that changes. Here are some differences you may see: Unlike general Amateur Radio activities, which involve primarily Amateur Radio operators, emergency communication involves both Amateurs and non-Amateurs. Unlike regular activities, emergency operations happen in real time. Important activities cannot be delayed for convenience. Instead of one leisurely net a day, emergency communicators are often dealing with several continuous nets simultaneously to pass critical messages within a limited timeframe. Unlike public service events that are scheduled and planned, emergency communicators are often asked to organize and coordinate field operations with little or no warning. Unlike public service events where the communicators serve primarily under the direction of one lead organization, emergency communicators may need to interact with several key organizations simultaneously. Unlike typical home installations, emergency stations must be portable and able to be set up and operational anywhere in a very short time. Unlike contesting, which involves contacting any station for points, emergency communicators need to contact specific stations quickly to pass important messages. Teamwork is important, not competition between stations. Unlike Field Day, where you can plan on a two-day operation, emergency operations have no schedule and are likely to continue for at least several days. Unlike commercial communication solutions, where there is no reserve capacity for handling a sudden and massive increase in communication volume, Amateur Radio emergency communicators have the equipment, skills, and knowledge to create additional capacity in a very short time. The Missions The job you are asked to do will vary with the specific agency you serve. If that agency is the American Red Cross, you will be providing the communications needed to maintain a system of shelters and other relief efforts. If it is a state or local emergency management agency, you could be handling interagency communications, or serving as the eyes and ears of the emergency managers. When a hospital's telephone system fails, you might be handling the "mechanics" of communicating so that doctors and nurses can concentrate on patients. In a large forest-fire or search and rescue operation, you might be setting up personal phone patches for firefighters or rescuers to their families, or assisting with logistical communications to insure that food, supplies, personnel and materials arrive when and where needed. For the National Weather Service you will be reporting storm locations and weather conditions so that they can better inform and warn the public. In any widespread disaster, hams could be assisting all the agencies listed above, and more. Communicating -- Job #1 While you are proud of your skill as a radio operator, and the impressive equipment and systems you have in place, it is important to remember that your job is "communicating." If an agency asks us to deliver a long shelter supply list to headquarters, you should be prepared to use any means required -- including the fax machine if it is still working. Our job is to get the message through, even if it means using smoke signals. Do not think about how to use ham radio to send the message -- just think about the best and fastest way to send it. If that means using ham radio, so much the better. If all you have is CB or Family Radio, use it. If an agency asks you to use their radio system, do it. Your operating and technical skills are just as important as your ham radio resources. Anatomy of a communication emergency In the earliest phases of many disasters, there is no immediate need for emergency communication services. (An obvious exception would be a tornado or earthquake.) This phase might occur during a severe storm "watch" or "warning" period. You should use this time to monitor developments and prepare to deploy when and if a request for assistance comes. Some nets, such as the Hurricane Watch Net or SKYWARN, may be activated early in the storm watch or warning phases to provide the National Weather Service and other agencies with up-to-the-minute information. Once a potential or actual need for more communication resources is identified, a served agency puts out the call for its volunteer communicators. Depending on the situation, operators and equipment might be needed at an Emergency Operations Center (EOC) or to set up in field locations, or both. In some areas, a "Rapid Response Team" (RRT) or similar small sub-group might deploy a minimal response in a very short time, to be backed up by a second, more robust response in an hour or two. A "resource" or "logistics" net might be set up to handle incoming communication volunteers and direct resources where they are needed most. Any volunteer not presently assigned to a specific net or task should check into and monitor this net. Once operations begin, all kinds of things can happen. The volume of messages can grow quickly, and confusion is common. In addition to handling messages, your organization will need to think about relief or replacement operators, food and water, sleeping accommodations, batteries, fuel, and other logistical needs. Radios and antennas will fail and need to be replaced. Some operators will need to leave early for personal reasons. Communication assignments might include staffing a shelter to handle calls for information, supplies, and personnel, "shadowing" an official to be their communication link, gathering weather information, or collecting and transmitting damage reports. Some nets might pass health and welfare inquiries to refugee centers, or pass messages from refugees to family members outside the disaster area. Other nets might handle logistical needs for the served agency, such as those regarding supplies, equipment, and personnel. Nets will be set up, re-arranged, and dismantled as needs change. Volunteers will need to remain flexible in order to meet the changing needs of the served agency. Over time, the need for emergency communication networks will diminish as the message load decreases, and some nets will be closed or reduced in size. Operators will be released to go home one by one, in small groups, or all at once as the needs dictate. Not long after the operation has ended, the emergency communication group should review the effectiveness of its response, either alone or with the served agency. This might be done on the air in a formal net, by email, or in a face-to-face meeting. However it is done, it should occur as soon as possible after operations have ended to be sure that events are fresh in everyone's mind. Critiques, done properly, can greatly improve your organization's -- and your own -- effectiveness.
Amateurs As Professionals -- The Served Agency Relationship Objective: This unit will help you to understand the critical and delicate relationship between emergency communicators and the agencies they serve. Student preparation required: None Information: What has my "attitude" got to do with this? In a word, everything! It is even more important than your radio skills. Historically speaking, the attitude of some Amateur Radio volunteers has been our weakest point. In situations where a professional and helpful attitude is maintained, served agencies point with pride to ham's efforts and accomplishments. The opposite situation is clearly illustrated in the words of one emergency management official who said, "Working with ham radio operators is like herding cats -- get them the heck out of here!" This man was clearly frustrated with the attitude of his volunteers. Although our name says that we are "Amateurs," its real reference is to the fact that we are not paid for our efforts. It need not imply that our efforts or demeanor will be anything less than professional. "Professionalism" means getting the job done efficiently -- with a minimum of fuss. No matter which agency you serve -- emergency management, the Red Cross, or others, it is helpful to remember that emcomm volunteers are like unpaid employees. If you maintain the attitude that you are an employee of the agency you are serving, with all that employee status implies, there is little chance for you to go astray. You are there to help solve their communication problems. Do whatever you can, within reason, to accomplish that goal, and avoid becoming part of the problem. Who Works For Whom The relationship between the volunteer communicator and served agency will vary somewhat from situation to situation, but the fact is that you work for them. It doesn't matter whether you are part of a separate radio group like like the Amateur Radio Emergency Service (ARES), or part of the agency's regular volunteer force. You still work for them. Your job is to meet the communication needs of the served agency. Period. It is not to show off your fancy equipment, nor to impress anyone with your knowledge of radio and electronics. A "know-it-all" or "I will show you how good I am, and how inadequate you are" attitude will end your -- and our -- relationship with the served agency in a hurry. It is often said that volunteers don't have to take orders. This is true -- we do not. However, when you volunteer your services to an organization, you implicitly agree to accept and comply with reasonable orders and requests from your "employer." If you do not feel comfortable doing this, do not volunteer. There may be times that you find yourself unwilling or unable to comply with a served agency's demands. The reasons may be personal, or related to safety or health, or it may be that you do not consider yourself qualified or capable of meeting a particular demand. On rare occasions, it may be that they ask you to do something not permitted by FCC rules. Regardless of the reason, respectfully explain the situation, and work with the served agency or your superiors in the communication group to come up with an alternative solution. If the discussion with the served agency becomes difficult or uncomfortable, you can always politely pass the discussion up to your immediate emcomm superiors so that they can handle it instead. How Professional Emergency Responders Often View Volunteers Unless a positive and long established relationship exists between professionals and volunteers, professionals who do not work regularly with competent volunteers are likely to look at them as "less than useful." There are several reasons for this. Fire departments have a long history of competitive relationships between professional and volunteer firefighters, and this attitude may carry over to volunteers in general. Police agencies are often distrustful of outsiders -- often for legitimate information security concerns. Professionals in any field put a great deal of time and effort into their skills and training, and take considerable pride in their professional standing. As a result, they may view themselves as able to handle all possible situations without outside assistance. Volunteers, on the other hand, are often viewed as "part timers" whose skill level and dedication to the job vary widely. Many agencies and organizations have learned that some volunteers cannot be depended on when they are needed most. Do not be offended if this attitude is obvious, and remember that you cannot change it overnight. It takes time for you to prove yourselves, and for a positive working relationship to develop and mature. The middle of an on-going incident is not the time to try to change a "we do not need you" attitude. If your offer of assistance is refused, do not press the issue. The incident commander is busy with more pressing needs, and if he changes his mind about your offer, he will probably contact you. Remember: the served agency's authority should never be challenged -- They are in charge, and you are not. Performing Non-Communication Roles It has been said many times that our job should be strictly limited to communication. But is this a hard and fast rule? When you work as a SKYWARN weather spotter, or collect and relay damage reports for the Red Cross, is this not going beyond your role as a communicator? Well, yes and no. The old model of the emergency communicator was one where a written message would be generated by the served agency and handed to the radio operator. They would format and transmit the message to another station, whose operator would then write it out and then deliver it to the addressee. In this role, hams were strictly communicators, and due to the radio technology of the times, it was appropriate. Those days are gone forever. In today's fast paced emergency responses, there is often no time for this sort of system. Events are happening too quickly, and the agency's communications must move at the same speed. The job description will more likely be "any function that also includes communication," as defined by the served agency. For this reason, emergency communication groups should engage in pre-planning with the served agency to ensure that these jobs are clearly defined, and any additional job-specific training required is obtained in advance. In general, emcomm groups should be prepared to perform jobs for their served agency that include the need to communicate. Here are a few of the many possible job descriptions: Radio operator, using Amateur or served agency radio systems. Dispatcher, organizing the flow of personnel, vehicles, and supplies. Resource coordinator, organizing the assignments of disaster relief volunteers. Field observer, watching and reporting weather or other conditions. Damage assessor, evaluating and reporting damage conditions. Van driver, moving people or supplies from location to location. Searcher, also providing communication for a search and rescue team. To perform these jobs, you may need to complete task-specific training courses, and take part in exercises and drills in addition to those required for emergency communication even beyond traditional Amateur Radio. In the ever-changing world of emergency response, this flexibility will become increasingly important if we are to continue our contribution to public safety as Amateur Radio operators. Note: Some emcomm groups may still enforce a "communication only" policy, and in some agencies, the old model may still be appropriate. Discuss this with your Emergency Coordinator or similar emcomm manager to be sure. Specific Agency Relationships The relationship between the volunteer communicator and the served agency can be quite different from agency to agency, and even between different offices of the same agency. While the ARRL and other national communication groups have existing "Memorandums of Understanding" (MOU), sometimes called a "Statement of Understanding" (SOU) or "Statement of Affiliation" (SOA), in place with many served agencies that define our general relationships, the actual working relationship is more precisely defined a the local level. Different people have different ideas and management styles, agencies in one area can have different needs from others, and these can affect the working relationship between the agency and its emcomm volunteers. Emcomm groups often have their own written agreements with the agency's local office. Here are some examples of relationships: Department of Homeland Security (DHS): In June 2003, ARRL and DHS signed a Statement of Affiliation, making ARES an affiliate member of DHS's Citizen's Corp community readiness program. The agreement provides for training and a accreditation of ARES members, raising public awareness of Amateur Radio's role in emergency communications, and coordination of shared activities. Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA): In most cases Amateur Radio emcomm operators will have little direct contact with FEMA and other federal agencies, except within the Military Affiliate Radio System (MARS) and at the national level with ARRL. American Red Cross chapters may have their own communication teams that include Amateurs, or they may have a SOU with a local ARES group or radio club. Typical assignments include linking shelters and chapter houses, performing damage assessment, handling supply and personnel logistics, and handling health and welfare messages. The Salvation Army maintains its own internal Amateur Radio communication support group, known as the Salvation Army Team Emergency Radio Network (SATERN). In some areas, ARES or other groups provide local communication support. Assignments are similar to the Red Cross. State and Local Emergency Management: Some state and local emergency management agencies include Radio Amateur Civil Emergency Service (RACES) teams as part of their own emergency communication plan. Others use "outside" groups such as the ARES. In a growing trend around the country, all ARES members are also RACES registered operators and vice versa. Communication assignments may be similar to the Red Cross and Salvation Army, but may also include government command and control, and inter-agency communications. SKYWARN is a self-contained program sponsored by the National Weather Service, and not all members are Amateur Radio operators. Many use other radio systems or telephone, fax or email to send in weather observations. SKYWARN volunteers collect on the spot weather observations that will allow forecasters to create forecasts that are more accurate, and issue timely warnings. Talking to The Press In any emergency situation, the press will be hunting for any tidbit of information they can get, and they may not care where they get it. One place they should never get information regarding the served agency or its efforts is from you. Politely refer all such inquiries to the served agency's public spokesperson. If you offer such information "just to be helpful," because you enjoy "being in the spotlight," or to get some publicity for yourself or your emcomm group, the served agency would be well within its rights to ask you to leave. Some emcomm organizations also have their own spokesperson. In ARES this person is called the "Public Information Officer" (PIO) -- other organizations may use a different job title. Their job is to handle press inquiries so that radio operators can do their jobs without interruption. In most all cases, they would only answer questions about the Amateur Radio group's efforts, and not those of the served agency. If a reporter just will not leave you alone, you might feel obliged to say something so they will go away. In this case, the only thing you should discuss is your part of the emergency communication effort, but only if you are part of a separate emcomm group such as ARES, and only if that organization's policy permits it. If they are impeding your ability to do your job, briefly explain this to the reporter and politely but firmly direct them to the PIO or an emcomm management person. Regardless of the situation, it is always a good policy to know in advance how your organization or served agency would like you to deal with press inquiries. If your emcomm organization does not have a "press" policy, you might suggest that one be developed. This will help prevent misunderstandings and hard feelings later. Volunteering Where You Are Not Known In some cases, an emergency occurs in a neighboring area where you are not a member of the responding communication group. For whatever reason, you might feel obligated to offer your services. If at all feasible, it is best to make your offer before making any significant preparations, or leaving home. It is possible that your offer might be welcomed, but it is equally possible that it will be refused. There are good reasons for this, particularly where the served agency has specific requirements, such as specialized training, official IDs, and time consuming background checks. Most emcomm managers prefer to work only with operators whose abilities and limitations they know. They may also have more volunteers than they need, or may feel that your skills or equipment are not suited to their mission. If you are turned away, please accept the situation gracefully. On the other hand, if your offer of assistance is accepted, the situation you find may vary quite a bit. In a well-organized effort, there will be someone to help orient you to the response effort, provide any required information, and answer your questions. Your assignment will be clear, a relief person will be sent along at the end of a pre-defined shift, and you will know of any arrangements for food, sanitation, and sleep. If the effort is not well organized, little, if any, of the above scenario could be true. You might be given an assignment, but with little additional information or support. In this case, you will need to improvise and fend for yourself, and you should be prepared to do so. This is one good reason for making your offer of assistance in advance. Learn as much as you can about the response before preparing to leave home. In any event, the best time to offer your services to an emcomm group is well before any emergency occurs. This will allow you to obtain the proper training and credentials, and to become known to the group's managers. When the time comes to serve, you will be ready for your job, and a job will be ready for you. Worker's Compensation Coverage and Legal Protections In some states, Worker's Compensation insurance coverage can be extended to volunteers working on behalf of a government or non-profit agency. However, Worker's Compensation law is a rather complex matter regulated by individual state's laws. In many cases, it may not be possible for volunteers who are not also paid employees of a served agency to be covered by Worker's Compensation. Emcomm managers should investigate their state's laws on this subject rather than assume that the agency's Worker's Compensation coverage will automatically apply. Volunteers providing services to government agencies or Section 501(c)(3) tax-exempt private organizations are provided immunity from liability by Federal law through the Volunteer Protection Act of 1997, 42 U.S.C. Section 14501. This generally limits liability if the volunteer was acting at the time within the scope of official duties under a volunteer program. There are exceptions: the law does not cover volunteers who cause harm while operating motor vehicles, or if the volunteer is grossly negligent, or engages in criminal acts. The statute, however, provides broad liability protection for Amateurs in most contexts, and especially where Amateurs volunteer under ARES to provide emergency communications to served agencies. Reference links: American Red Cross - www.redcross.org The Salvation Army - www.salvationarmy.org SKYWARN - www.SKYWARN.org Military Affiliate Radio Service (Army) - www.asc.army.mil/mars/default.htm Federal Emergency Management Agency - www.fema.gov ARRL MOUs (SOUs) with various agencies - www.arrl.org/Fand ES/field/mou/index.html ARRL -- Served Agencies - www.arrl.org/FandES/field/pscm/sec1-ch7.html Review: The relationship between Amateur Radio operators and a served agency is a critical one. Emcomm volunteers should maintain a professional attitude at all times and remember that their relationship to the served agency is much like that of an employee - without the paycheck. Agency relationships will vary with the agency, region, and the needs and style of local management. Avoid giving any information to the press until you understand both the served agency's and your own emcomm group's policies on speaking to the press. Most groups will want all information to come from a central official source, such as a "public information officer." When volunteering where you are not known, do not be surprised if your offer is refused. Emcomm groups often have requirements that cannot be met during an actual emergency.
Network Theory and the Design of Emergency Communication Systems Objective: Following completion of this Learning Unit, you will have a deeper understanding of the characteristics of messages and the modes for conveying those messages. This lesson, based on a comprehensive QST article by David Fordham, KD9LA, will help you choose which mode to use for sending different kinds of messages in an emergency communications situation. Student preparation required: None required for this Learning Unit. Information: Network Theory The study of information transfer between multiple points is known as network theory. During an emergency, messages vary greatly in terms of length, content, complexity, and other characteristics. Similarly, the available communication pathways vary in how well they handle messages having different characteristics. Network theory can be thought of as the process of matching a particular message to the best communication pathway. The best pathway is that which can transfer the information with the most efficiency, tying up the communication resources the least amount of time, and getting the information transferred most accurately and dependably. Hams are often invited to participate in emergency services planning, providing communications expertise. By incorporating some fundamental concepts about network theory into the planning of emergency communication systems, we can take advance steps to be sure that efficient and appropriate communication modes are available when the emergency strikes, thus providing a more valuable service to the public. Let s start our discussion with the characteristics of messages. Single versus Multiple Destinations There are major differences between broadcasting and one-to-one (exclusive) communication channels. Some messages are for one single addressee while others need to be received by multiple locations simultaneously. And some messages addressed to one destination can be useful and informative to incidental listeners, like the National Weather Service. A specific instruction to a particular shelter manager is a completely different kind of communication than an announcement to all shelters. Yet, it is common to hear these messages on the same communications channel. High Precision versus Low Precision Precision is not the same as accuracy. All messages must be received accurately. But sending a list of names or numbers requires precision at the character level, while a report that the lost hiker has been found does not. Both may be important messages and must be transferred accurately. But one involves a need for more precision. Over low-precision communications channels (such as voice modes) even letters of the alphabet can be misinterpreted unless a phonetic system, feedback, or error-correcting mechanism is used. Conversely, typing out a low precision message that the delivery van containing the coffee has arrived at this location on a high-precision packet link can be more time consuming (and inefficient) than a simple voice report. Complexity A doctor at a hospital may use a radio to instruct an untrained field volunteer how to splint a fractured leg. A shelter manager may report that he is out of water. The level of complexity varies greatly between these two messages. Some messages are so long and complicated that the recipient cannot remember or comprehend the entire message upon its arrival. Detailed maps, long lists, complicated directions, and diagrams are best put in hard copy or electronic storage for later reference. This avoids the need to repeat and ask for fills, activities that tie up the communication channel. Some modes, such as fax and packet radio, by their very nature generate such reference copy. Others (such as voice modes) do not, and require a time-consuming conversion step. Timeliness Some messages are extremely time-critical, while others can tolerate delays between origination and delivery without adverse effect. Relief workers and their communicators can be very busy people. Requiring a relief worker to handle a non-time-critical message may prevent them from handling a more pressing emergency. Also, a message might need to be passed at a time when the receiving station is tied up with other business, and by the time the receiving station is free the sending station is then occupied. In these cases, provision can be made for time shifting the message can be left at a drop point for pickup when the receiving station becomes free. Conversely, highly time-critical messages must get through without delay. Timeliness also relates to the establishment of a communications link. Some modes, such as telephones, require dialing and ringing to establish a connection. An operator of a base station radio may need to track down a key official at the site to deliver a message. What matters is the total elapsed time from the time the message originates to the time it is delivered to its final party. Priority The concept of priority as used by Network Theory is better known to hams as QSK, the ability to break in on a communication in progress. For example, a communication pathway is in use with a lengthy, but low-priority, message. A need suddenly arises for a high-priority message. Can the high-priority message take precedence and interrupt the low priority one to gain access to the channel? Some communications modes allow for this; others do not. Characteristics of Communication Channels Now that we have looked at the different message characteristics, let s consider the communication channels that might be used in an emergency. In addition to the concepts of destination, precision, complexity, timeliness, and priority, communication channels also can be evaluated in terms of their reliability and ease of use. Telephones The pathway most familiar to non-hams is the telephone. This voice-based mode is surprisingly reliable, and can be operated without the need for specialized communication volunteers. It is often fully operational with plenty of unused capacity during localized and small-scale emergencies, but can quickly become overloaded during large-scale disasters. The telephone system is very good for transferring simple information requiring low precision. Since this mode utilizes the human voice, transferring a large amount of high-precision data (such as spelling a long list of names or numbers) can become tedious and time consuming. The telephone system is a one-to-one communication pathway, meaning it cannot be used for broadcasting. But, the one-to-one relationship between sender and receiver makes it ideal for messages containing sensitive or confidential information, such as casualty lists. The exclusive nature of most telephone circuits makes it difficult or impossible to break-in on a conversation to deliver a higher-priority message. The need for break-in usually precludes leaving the channel open continuously between two points, resulting in the need to dial and answer each time a message needs to be sent. The major drawback to telephones during emergency situations is that the sending and receiving stations are not self-contained. The system requires wires and cables that can be damaged or destroyed during severe weather. When the central switching center goes down or becomes overloaded, all communications on this mode come to a halt, regardless of priority or criticality. Cellular Phones Cellular phones offer advantages that make them attractive: they are simple to operate and do not require a separate, licensed communication volunteer. They are lightweight and can be carried in a pocket, eliminating the need for tracking individuals as they move around. Like landlines (and unlike devices used in Amateur Radio), cellular phones are ideally suited to one-to-one communications, avoiding distraction to stations not involved in the message exchange. They are unsuitable for multiple-recipient messages that are better handled on a broadcast-capable communications mode. Like the landline telephone system, cellular phones are not self-contained communications units. They are reliant on a complex central switching and control system that is subject to failure or overloading. If the central base station goes down, or if its links with the other components of the phone system fail, cellular phone communication comes to a halt. There is no go to simplex contingency option with cellular phones. Fax TFax machines overcome the limitations of voice communications when it comes to dealing with high-precision, lengthy, and complex information. A four-page list of first-aid supplies, for example, can be faxed much faster than it can be read over a voice channel and transcribed. Fax machines can transfer drawings, pictures, diagrams, and maps information that is practically impossible to transfer over voice channels. Today, fax machines are widely available. Most organizations use them as a routine part of their business communications. It is becoming more and more likely that a fax machine will be found at the school, church, hospital, government center, or other institution involved in emergency or disaster-relief efforts. Most of today s computers (even laptops!) are equipped with modems that can send and receive fax information. Another advantage of fax machines is their production of a permanent record of the message as part of the transfer process. They also facilitate time-shifting. But they rely on the phone system, and add one more piece of technology and opportunity for failure. Except for laptop modems, they generally require 120Vac current, which is not always available during emergencies unless plans have been made for it. Two-Way Voice Radio Whether on the public service bands or ham frequencies, whether SSB or FM, via repeater or simplex, voice radio is simple and easy to operate. Most units can operate on multiple frequencies, making it a simple matter to increase the number of available communication circuits as the need arises. Most important, the units are generally self-contained, enhancing portability and increasing reliability of the system in adverse environmental conditions. Radios are ideal for broadcasting. On the flip side, though, while a message is being transferred between two stations, the entire channel is occupied, preventing other stations from communicating. Using radio for one-to-one communication can be very distracting to stations not involved in the exchange. (The most common example of inefficient use of communication resources is a lengthy exchange between two stations on a channel being shared by a large number of users.) Also, radios suffer from the low precision inherent in voice modes of communication. Trunked Radio Systems These systems are becoming highly popular with public service agencies. They are similar to the standard voice radio systems described above with two exceptions. Unfortunately, both exceptions have a direct (and adverse) impact on the use of trunked systems in emergency and disaster situations. The first has to do with the fundamental purpose behind trunking. Trunked systems came into being to allow increased message density on fewer circuits. In other words, more stations could share fewer frequencies, with each frequency being utilized at a higher rate. Under everyday circumstances, this results in more efficient spectrum use. But when an emergency strikes and communication needs skyrocket, the channels quickly become saturated. A priority queue results, and messages are delayed. Medium and low priority messages, and even some high-priority messages, might not get through unless important stations are assigned a higher priority in the system s programming. The second difference deals with the way that frequencies are shared. Trunked systems rely on a complex central signaling system to dynamically handle the mobile frequency assignments. When the central control unit goes down for any reason, the entire system base and mobile units must revert to a pre-determined simplex or repeater-based arrangement. This fallback strategy is risky in emergency situations because of the small number of frequencies available to the system. Packet Radio As already mentioned, voice modes are ideal for low-precision messages. Digital data modes, on the other hand, facilitate high-precision message transfer. Modes such as packet radio ensure near-perfect accuracy in transmission and reception. And like fax machines, packet has the ability to provide a relatively permanent record of the message for later reference. The packet mode has another advantage when dealing with information that is in electronic form: there is no need for a conversion step before transmission. This is especially valuable when the information being sent is generated by machine (such as automated weather sensors, GPS receivers, or shelter management computers). Packet stations are generally self-contained, and if located within line-of-sight, do not need a central switching system. Unlike fax machines, packet radio systems are perfect for the distribution of high-precision information to a large number of destinations simultaneously. And the automated retry feature means that several connections can share a single frequency simultaneously, effectively increasing the capacity of the channel. Among its disadvantages, real-time packet messages require the operator to use a keyboard. This makes the mode unacceptable for low-precision but lengthy messages, such as describing an injury or giving a status report, especially where the operator is not a fast typist. Due to its need for perfect transmission accuracy, it may not be reliable along marginal RF paths. And unlike fax machines, most of today s common packet protocols are inefficient when transferring precision graphics, drawings, and all but the most rudimentary maps. Store-and-Forward Systems Sometimes considered a subset of packet radio, store-and-forward systems (bulletin boards, messaging gateways, electronic mailboxes, etc) can handle non-time-critical messages and reference material, enabling communication in situations where sender and receiver cannot be available simultaneously. These systems also increase the effective capacity of a communication channel by serving as a buffer. When a destination is overloaded with incoming messages, the store-and-forward unit can hold the messages until the receiver is free. It is important to remember that store-and-forward systems are not limited to digital modes. Voice-answering machines, and even an NTS-like arrangement of liaison stations can function as voice-based store-and-forward systems. Other Modes Slow-scan television, fast-scan television, satellite communications, human couriers, the Internet, email, and other modes of communication all have their own characteristics. Space limitations prohibit more discussion, but by now you get the idea of how communications channels relate to different types of messages. Planning and Preparation The Keys to Success Serious communication planners should give advance thought to the kinds of information that might need to be passed during each kind of emergency they wish to consider. Will maps need to be transferred? What about long lists of names, addresses, supplies, or other detailed identification? Will the communications consist mostly of short status reports? Will the situation likely require transfer of detailed instructions, directions, or descriptions? Will they originally be in verbal, written, or electronic form? Planners should next consider the origins and destinations of the messages. Will one station be disseminating information to multiple remote sites? Will there be a lot of one-to-one messages? Will one station be overloaded while others sit idle? Will a store-and-forward system, even via voice, be useful or necessary? The content of the messages should also be considered. Will a lot of confidential or sensitive information be passed? Will there be a need for break-in or interruption for pressing traffic or can one station utilize (tie up) the communications link for a while with no adverse consequences? Along with the message analysis described above, the frequency of occurrence (count of messages) of each type should also be estimated. Then, in the most important step, the characteristics of the high-volume messages should be matched to one or more appropriate communication pathways. Once you have identified the ideal pathways for the most common messages, the next step is to take action to increase the likelihood that the needed modes will be available during the emergency. Hams take pride in their jump kit emergency packs containing their 2-meter radios, extra batteries and roll-up antennas. How about doing the same thing for some additional communication modes, too? Put a list of critical phone numbers (including fax numbers, pager numbers, cellular numbers) in your kit. Make sure your local packet digipeater has battery backup. If you are likely to be assigned to a school, church, or office building, see if you can get a copy of the instructions for using the fax machine to keep in your kit. If the phones are out, know how to interface the fax machine to your radio. Advance scouting may be needed. It is a good idea to see if fax machines are in place and whether they will be accessible in an emergency. Is there a supply of paper available? Are the packet digipeaters within range of every likely communication post? Can computers be made available or will hams have to provide their own? How will backup power be provided to the computers? Can a frequency list be developed, along with guidelines of when and how to use each frequency? Contingency planning is also of critical importance. How many times has a repeater gone down, and only then did the communicators wish they had agreed in advance on an alternate simplex frequency? What will you do if you need to send a map and the fax machine power fails? Suppose you are relying on cellular phones and the cellular network fails? Remember, if you plan for problems, they cease to be problems and become merely a part of the plan. The final step is training. Your manning roster, assignment lists, and contingency plans need to be tied in to the training and proficiency of your volunteers. Questions you might want to ask are: Who knows how to use a cellular phone? Who knows how to use fax software? Who knows how to upload or download a file from a packet BBS? Who knows how to touch-type? By matching your needs with your personnel, you can identify areas where training is needed. Club meeting programs and field trips provide excellent opportunities for training, as well as building enthusiasm and sharing knowledge of the plans. You will be surprised at how a little advance planning and effort can go a long way to turning a volunteer mobilization into a versatile, effective, professional-quality communication system. Reference links: For more information on this topic, see Network Theory and the Design of Emergency Communication Systems Part 1, October 1997 QST, Public Service column. Part 2 appears in November 1997 QST, Public Service. See also a discussion of communications theory in The ARRL Emergency Coordinator s Manual.
Learning Unit 4 Emergency Communication Organizations & Systems Objective: Emergency communication organizations are what make an emcomm response possible. This unit introduces several of the largest and best-known organizations, and a number of related emcomm and public warning systems. Student preparation required: None Information: Why is organization so important to emcomm? Imagine a random group of volunteers trying to tackle a full-scale disaster communication emergency, working together for the first time. They do not know each other well, have very different approaches to solving the same problem, and half of them want to be in charge. Get the picture? It is not too far fetched. Just ask anyone who has been around emcomm for a while -- they have seen it! This course is intended to help solve that problem, but without emcomm organizations, this course would be worthless. Emcomm organizations provide training, and a forum to share ideas and develop workable solutions to problems in advance of a real disaster. This way, when the time comes to assist the served agency, you will be as prepared as you can be. The response will occur more smoothly, challenges will be dealt with productively, and the served agency's needs met. Some of the organizations discussed here do not directly involve Amateur Radio operators, but knowing about them and how they might assist in an emergency may be helpful. Your served agency may utilize or interact with one or more of these systems or organizations. Amateur Radio Emergency Service (ARES) Among the largest and oldest emcomm groups is ARES, a program sponsored by the American Radio Relay League (ARRL) since 1935. ARES is part of the League's field organization, which is composed of "Sections". Most Sections are entire states, but some larger states have two or more Sections. The elected Section Manager (SM) appoints the ARES leadership. The top ARES leader in each Section is the Section Emergency Coordinator (SEC). Some larger Sections, like Wisconsin, Michigan, and Florida, are further divided into two or more Districts. In this case, each District is guided by a District Emergency Coordinator (DEC), working directly under the SEC. (See diagram below.) The next subdivision within ARES is the "county" or similar region assigned to an Emergency Coordinator (EC). Most ECs will have one or more Assistant Emergency Coordinators (AEC), who may have responsibility for specific tasks or cities. A large city with complex needs may have its own EC, but most towns and smaller cities will have an AEC. ARES has Memoranda of Understanding (MOUs) with a variety of agencies at the national level, including the Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA), American Red Cross, Salvation Army, and the National Weather Service. These documents set out the general relationship between ARES and the agency at the national level, and provide guidance for local units of both organizations to draft more specific local MOUs. In addition to local chapters of national groups, ARES groups often have MOUs or other written or verbal agreements with state and city emergency management departments, hospitals, schools, police and fire departments, public works agencies, and others. Radio Amateur Civil Emergency Service (RACES) The federal government created RACES after World War II. The RACES rules addressed the need for Amateur Radio operators to function as an integral part of a state, county, or local Civil Defense (CD) agency in time of national emergency or war. The RACES authorization provides the means to continue to serve the public even if the President or the FCC suspends regular Amateur operations. In this situation, the RACES rules provide for use of almost all regular Amateur frequencies, but place strict limits on the types of communications made, and with whom. At one time, Civil Defense agencies could obtain a "RACES station license" that would allow non-ham agency personnel to use Amateur frequencies under limited conditions. These licenses are no longer issued, but existing licenses can continue to be renewed. Also, operators of any RACES stations must now be licensed Amateurs, and must follow the RACES rules at all times. Over the years, both "Civil Defense" (now known as Emergency Management" in most states) and the way it utilizes Amateur radio operators have changed dramatically. There are fewer "pure" RACES operators today. Increasingly, RACES-registered operators also belong to ARES, and can "switch hats" when the need arises. Emergency management officials like this arrangement since it provides more flexibility, and gives them more direct control over their ham radio volunteers. Salvation Army Team Emergency Radio Network (SATERN) SATERN members are also Salvation Army volunteers. Their HF networks are used for both logistical communication between various Salvation Army offices and for health and welfare messages. At the local level, ARES, REACT and other groups often help support the Salvation Army's operations. The "Rapid Response Team" (RRT) In the first minutes of an emergency, it is sometimes important to get the basic essentials of a network on the air quickly. The solution is the "RRT" concept, although its name may vary. In Hawaii, it is known as a "Quick Response Team" (QRT), and in New Hampshire, a "Rapid Emergency Deployment Team" (RED Team). Rather than a stand-alone organization, a RRT is small team within a larger emcomm group. Their job is to put a few strategically placed stations on the air within the first half-hour to an hour. These stations will usually include the emergency operations center (EOC), a resource net NCS, and often a few field teams where needed most. This is commonly known as a "Level 1 RRT response". A Level 2 RRT response follows within a few hours, bringing additional resources and operators. Level 1 teams have pre-assigned jobs, and short-term (12-24 hour) "jump kits", ready to go whenever the call comes. Level 2 teams have longer term (72 hour) jump kits, and a variety of other equipment, possibly including tents, portable repeaters, extended food and water supplies, sleeping gear, spare radios, and generators, depending on local needs. ARES Mutual Assistance Team (ARESMAT) When a communication emergency lasts longer than a day or two, or when the scale of the emergency is beyond the ability of a local ARES group to handle, help can be requested from neighboring areas. The ARESMAT concept was created to meet that need. These teams consist of hams who are willing and able to travel to another area for a period to assist ARES groups based in the disaster area. They may also bring additional resources in the form of radios, antennas, and other critical equipment. If you travel to another area as part of an ARESMAT, remember that the local group is still in charge -- you are there to do what they need done. In a sense, the host ARES group becomes a "served agency". Military Affiliate Radio Service (MARS) MARS is a Department of Defense sponsored auxiliary communication program, established as three separately managed and operated programs by the United States Army, Navy/Marine Corp, and Air Force. The program enlists the services of licensed hams who operate disciplined and structured nets on assigned military radio frequencies adjacent to the Amateur bands. MARS has a strict set of rules regarding the type, content and format of messages. Special call signs are issued for MARS use. In day-to-day service, MARS stations handle quasi-official and morale messages for the three services. During times of emergency, MARS provides backup communication networks to military, federal, state, and local agencies. MARS' most visible mission, providing phone patches to family members for US military personnel overseas, has diminished with the advent of new satellites that provide email and phone service almost anywhere. However, this has never been MARS largest or most important function. One advantage of the MARS system is that it is specifically authorized to communicate with other government radio services in time of emergency, including the federal SHARES HF networks. National Traffic System (NTS) Long before e-mail and the Internet, there was ARRL's NTS. The concept on which NTS is based is as old as ARRL itself. The NTS consists of local, regional and national nets operating on a regular basis to pass messages (traffic) from place to place. In day-to-day usage, the NTS handles non-critical organizational messages for its own members and ARRL field organizations, radiograms for the public, and various personal messages. Since e-mail has become popular, the NTS has seen a significant decrease in the number of messages passed through the system, and a corresponding decrease in membership and overall effectiveness. However, NTS still has an important role in emergency communication, and discussions about modernizing the NTS are underway. A more in depth discussion of NTS will follow later in this course. Local Radio Clubs Not every area has a working ARES or other nationally affiliated emcomm group. In many cases, the void is filled by local radio clubs who either work informally with served agencies, or with a formal MOU. National Communications System (NCS) A Federal agency, the NCS consists of 23 government organizations tasked with ensuring that the Federal Government has the necessary communication capabilities under all conditions from day-to-day use to national emergencies and international crises. These include the Forest Service, Federal Emergency Management Agency, Coast Guard, FBI, ATF, and others who have a variety of communication assets. The Manager of the NCS is also the Director of the Defense Information Systems Agency (DISA), usually an Air Force general. SHARES Even those who have been involved with emcomm for years may not know of the US Government's "Shared Resources System", known as "SHARES". This system is part of the NCS. It pairs certain MARS operators with various federal agencies and state emergency operations centers to provide a high frequency (HF) communication backbone if normal communication systems should fail. In addition to government agencies, key communications companies such as AT&T, and agencies such as the Red Cross have SHARES radios. The SHARES system utilizes a number of nationwide and regional networks. Federal Emergency Management Agency - FEMA National Radio System (FNARS) This is a FEMA high frequency (HF) radio network designed to provide a minimum essential emergency communication capability among federal agencies, state, local commonwealth, and territorial governments in times of national, natural and civil emergencies. FEMA monitors the FNARS HF frequencies on a daily basis. At the state level, FNARS radios are typically located at the state s emergency operations center (EOC). Radio Emergency Associated Communications Teams (REACT) REACT is another national emcomm group, whose members include Citizen's Band (CB) radio operators, hams, and others. In addition to CB and Amateur Radio, they may use General Mobile Radio Service (GMRS), Family Radio, and the Multiple Use Radio Service (MURS). REACT has an organizational structure similar to ARRL/ARES, with local teams who directly serve many of the same agencies served by ARES and other ham radio emcomm groups. REACT has MOUs with many of these agencies, as well as with ARRL. REACT's mission is somewhat broader than that of ARES. They offer crowd and traffic control, logistics, public education, and other services that usually (but not always) include a need for radio communication. Emergency Warning Systems Emergency Alert System -- EAS - (Broadcast Radio & TV): The current EAS system has evolved from the earlier Emergency Broadcast System (EBS) and the original "CONELRAD System" developed during World War II. The EAS relies on radio and TV broadcast stations to relay emergency alert messages from federal, state, and local authorities. Messages may pertain to any immediate threat to public safety, including enemy attack, storm warnings, earthquake alerts, and wildfires. Messages are relayed from station to station using automatic switching systems and digital signaling. You may have heard the required weekly EAS tests performed by radio and TV stations and their distinctive digital "squawk" sound. NOAA Weather Alert and National Weather Radio (NWR): The National Weather Service (NWS) division of the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) operates NWR. NWR uses seven frequencies in the 162MHz band to carry audio broadcasts to the public. Forecast and warning information originates from the regional network of forecasting offices, and yields timely and quality alerts dealing with weather and other natural events. Newer "weather alert" radios are available from a variety of manufacturers with the digital Specific Area Message Encoding (SAME) alert mechanism. SAME equipped radios will remain silent until an alert is received for a specific geographic area. The user programs one or more five-digit FIPS codes for the areas they wish to monitor. When the NWS broadcasts the alert with the SAME code matching that programmed into the receiver, the receiver will activate and allow you to hear the audio message concerning the alert. Some receivers also provide a textual display of the alert information. The NWS tests the SAME network at least once weekly, and the radio will indicate that it has heard the test alert within the past week. NAWAS (National Warning System): The federal government maintains a "hardened" and secure national wireline phone network connecting the warning points in each state (usually the state police HQ or state EOC). The center of NAWAS operations is the National Warning Center at NORAD's Cheyenne Mountain command and control complex in Colorado. Its primary purpose is to provide notification in case of enemy attack, and to inform and coordinate alert and warning information among states in a given region. During peacetime, it carries alerts on a variety of wide-ranging emergencies. Roll call check-ins are taken periodically during the day to ensure that the phone circuits are functioning properly. Statewide Warning Systems: These systems are similar to NAWAS, but at a state level. For most states that have such a system, county warning points are part of a statewide alert and warning network. It is known by different names in each state. For example, in Hawaii, it is HAWAS (Hawaii Warning System). In California, it is CALWAS. In Hawaii, HAWAS connects the warning points in each island county, the Pacific Tsunami Warning Center, the local National Weather Service Forecast Office and the Hawaii Air National Guard's 199th Fighter (interceptor) Squadron, 154th Wing, stationed at Hickam Air Force Base. It keeps these key entities informed on a real-time basis of bulletins crucial to these agencies. The warning systems in other states are similar. Tsunami Warning System: A national and international network of warning points are connected together to provide timely exchange of tsunami warning information. In the United States, it is known as the Tsunami Warning System (TWS). Information is relayed to a wide range of government, civil defense, military, and international tsunami research/warning points within each country or area. National Earthquake Information Center (NEIC): The U.S. Geological Survey operates the National Earthquake Information Center, located in Golden, Colorado. The NEIC issues rapid reports for those earthquakes that register at least 4.5 on the Richter Scale in the United States, or 6.5 on the Richter Scale (or are known to have caused damage) anywhere else in the world. Public warning reports are disseminated in the affected areas via the NWR and EAS systems. Reference links: National Communication System: www.ncs.gov REACT International: www.reactintl.org FEMA National Radio System: www.fema.gov Use site search box to find “FNARS” Amateur Radio Emergency Service: www.arrl.org/Fand ES/field.pscm/sec1-ch1.html National Weather Radio: http://205.156.54.206/nwr/index.html Emergency Alert System (EAS): www.fcc.gov/eb/eas/ Hawaii EAS: http://www.scd.state.hi.us/04_Preparedness/communications/eas/eas.htm National Earthquake Information Center: http://wwwneic.cr.usgs.gov/ Enter exactly as shown. There is no dot between "www" and "neic". Army MARS: www.asc.army.mil/ Navy MARS: http://ns1.maf.mobile.al/users/navymars Air Force MARS: http://public.afca.af.mil/public/mars1.htm SATERN: http://satern.org/satern.html or http://www.qso.com/satern411/ Review: Organization is critical to any emergency response. Without an organization that plans and prepares in advance, an Amateur Radio emcomm response is likely to be disorganized and ineffective. A variety of government and private emergency communication groups assist in time of disaster. While Amateur Radio operators may not interact with many of these systems, it may help to know that they exist, since your served agency may utilize or interact with one or more.
Learning Unit 5 Served Agency Communication Systems Objective: Emcomm volunteers may be asked to use the agency's own communication systems, in addition to Amateur Radio. This unit attempts to familiarize you with some of the systems you are likely to encounter. Student preparation required: Become familiar with the "Continuous Tone Coded Squelch System" (CTCSS), also known by various common trademarks, including Private Line (PL)*, and Channel Guard (CG)*. * Private Line is a trademark of Motorola, Inc. - Channel Guard is a trademark of General Electric/Ericcson. Information: Going Beyond Amateur Radio Most served agencies will have their own communication systems and equipment, ranging from modest to complex. In our ever-broadening role as emergency communicators, we may be asked to operate some of this equipment. If this occurs, you must become familiar with its operation. Your emcomm group should work with the served agency well in advance to determine whether the agency will need you to use its equipment, and under what conditions. Many of these radio systems are quite different from ham radio, and special training may be required. In addition to different equipment, on-air procedures will definitely be different. Training and drills may be necessary to make Amateur Radio emcomm operators proficient. State and Local Government Radio Systems: These systems might include those licensed to police, fire, sheriffs, highway, and other state, county, or city departments. If you are asked to use any of these systems, be sure to learn their standard operating procedures, and "phonetic alphabet" system if one is used. Some departments may use familiar ITU Phonetics, some will use military systems, and still others will make them up as they go along. In addition, a few departments still use a "10 code" or something similar, but most are moving away from special codes in favor of plain language. Be careful not to lapse into a ham radio operating style. Casual conversations are prohibited by FCC rules and are usually not permitted by the agency. All transmissions must be directly related to the agency's mission. Many police agencies are licensed for operation on 155.475 MHz, sometimes known as the "National Police Frequency." The FCC has set aside this channel to allow intercommunication between any police agency, regardless of state or jurisdiction. Unfortunately, many departments are not aware of its intended use and treat it as their own private "car to car" channel. Many will not know they have a common channel since they use "channel designators" rather than frequencies. In addition, CTCSS was not supposed to be used on this channel to ensure inter-agency compatibility, but many departments use it anyway. This may become important if different police agencies must intercommunicate with each other in an emergency. If one or more use CTCSS, they will need to disable it by placing their radios in the "monitor" mode, if possible. Medical Radio Systems: In order to standardize emergency medical radio systems across the country, the FCC assigned a number of dedicated frequencies. In theory, every ambulance in the country should be equipped to use all these frequencies. In practice, true compatibility is usually limited to a specific region. The older system, often called "MedStar," used 10 simplex VHF frequencies with a dial-type pulsed-tone encoder to signal specific hospitals. This system is still in use in some rural areas, but is quickly being replaced by more modern systems. The newer Emergency Medical Radio Service uses 10 UHF duplex frequency pairs; one assigned to the hospital, the other to the ambulance, and 7 VHF simplex channels. The UHF channels are known as "Med 1" to "Med 10." In some cases, the hospital's radio is located on a nearby mountain or tall tower in order to achieve the required coverage, and connected to the emergency department by a radio or telephone link. American Red Cross: ARC has a nationally licensed frequency (47.42MHz) that can be used by all ARC chapters, and is intended primarily for disaster or emergency operations. This common channel ensures that ARC units responding from various chapters will be able to communicate with each other. Some chapters also use 47.50MHz. In addition, certain chapters may rent space on commercial systems or license their own VHF or UHF systems for day-to-day operations. Types of Served-Agency Radio Systems In larger jurisdictions, each agency will probably have its own radio system, completely independent of all other radio users in the same area. This is especially true of large city and state police and fire radio systems. Many agencies have more than one channel, assigned to different purposes. For instance, a fire department might have a "dispatch" channel, and one or more "fireground" channels. This allows local operations at a fire scene to be kept separate from on-going dispatch operations. A police department may have a separate channel for detectives, or one for each precinct. These systems may be on repeaters or use simplex frequencies. The FCC allocates specific radio frequencies to different types of agencies, and some for multi-agency use. For instance, a frequency designated for use by police agencies may only be used for police business. The same is true of fire radio allocations. "Local Government" allocations may be used for any legitimate local government function. In addition to "simple" systems where each user group has its own frequency, there are three different types of systems that allow multiple user groups to share resources. These are known as "community repeaters," "trunked repeater systems," and "shared simplex systems." Community Repeater Systems: Unlike Amateur Radio repeater systems, a "community" or "shared" repeater uses a different CTCSS tone for each of several user groups. For instance, a city might have one repeater shared by the water, public works, and sanitation departments, licensed as a single "local government" radio system. Since each department uses a different CTCSS tone, they will not normally hear each other's conversations, but only one department can use the system at any given moment. Some very small rural towns may even combine fire and police department operations on the same system, either on a repeater or simplex frequency. When using any shared frequency -- repeater or simplex -- it is important to press the "monitor" button for a moment before transmitting. This disables the CTCSS decoder, temporarily allowing you to hear any transmissions being made on the frequency. Some mobile radios automatically switch to "monitor" mode when the mic is removed from its hang-up clip. In this way you can be certain that no one else is using the channel before making your call. In an emergency situation, these shared channel systems can quickly become overloaded. A common practice is to end all non-essential communications or perhaps move them to an Amateur system instead. Trunked Systems: Trunked systems provide an efficient means for several "low volume" users to share a single radio system. They use several co-located repeaters tied together, using computer control to automatically switch a call to an available repeater. When one radio in a group is switched to a new frequency, all the others in the group automatically follow. This is accomplished by having a computer controller move the conversation from frequency to frequency in accordance with a pre-established algorithm. The number of available frequencies in the system depends on its design, and the number of different user groups. Channel switching and assignment data is transmitted on a dedicated channel. Unlike a shared single-frequency repeater system using multiple CTCSS tones, a trunked system will provide almost instant on-demand clear channels in normal usage. Amateur Radio does not currently use this type of system. In emergency situations, however, most trunked systems suffer from a lack of reserve capacity. To keep designs cost effective, there are always many more user groups than available channels. The number of available channels is designed to handle the normal day-to-day communications load. When an emergency occurs, these systems can be quickly overloaded with calls, and finding a clear channel can be difficult or impossible. One "solution" to this problem is to assign certain users or user groups "priority" over others. If all the available channels are occupied, a higher priority user will bump the lowest priority user off the system and take over the channel. Priority status can either be full time or turned on in an emergency depending on the system's design. APCO Project 25 Radio Systems: In the 1990s, a new public safety radio system was developed to deal with problems of interoperability between agencies with different radios. The Association of Public Safety Communications Officers (APCO) created the Project 25 working group, which created what has become known as the Project 25 (P25) Standard. P25 radios are extremely flexible, with both forward and backward compatibility. This means that they can be configured to operate in both analog and digital voice modes, and as part of trunked and conventional radio systems. P25 radio systems are becoming more common across the country as federal funds become available. The advantages of P25 systems are obvious. Radios from several manufacturers can be programmed to communicate with each other seamlessly, as can radios from different agencies and jurisdictions. Digital modes offer excellent audio quality, and optional encrypted modes offer message and data security. The disadvantages are less obvious. While P25 digital systems work well in urban environments, they are not as effective in rural or mountainous areas. While analog signals can fade in and out, digital signals, are either there or they re not, just like a digital cellular telephone signal. Telephone Systems Telephone systems in use by public service agencies vary greatly. The served agency should be able to provide training in its use. Most telephone systems come with user manuals, and if possible a copy of one should be included in your group's training materials. Most business telephone systems allow the following basic functions, with which you should be familiar: * Answering incoming calls * Placing outside calls * Placing and answering intercom calls * Making "speed dial" calls * Overhead paging * Placing calls on hold, and then retrieving them. * Transferring calls to another extension. * Transferring calls to voice mail, if available * Retrieving calls from a voice mail box There may be other, more advanced functions available, but in most cases you will not need to learn them for temporary operations. However, it is always a good idea to keep the user's manual close at hand. Satellite Telephones Satellite phones and data terminals are becoming more common among served agencies as the cost of ownership and airtime decreases. As of this writing, satellite telephone/data service is offered by a number of companies, including Inmarsat, Iridium, Thuraya, and Globalstar. Some of the services cover much of the earth s surface, others only certain regions. Of these, Iridium s 66 satellite low earth orbit (LEO) constellation has the most coverage with 100%, followed by Inmarsat at 98% of the earth s total surface, and Globalstar with 80% land-area coverage. Thuraya, based in the United Arab Emirates, covers most of Europe, the Middle East, and North Africa. Some phones or terminals require that an antenna be pointed directly at the satellite, others do not, but all require line-of-sight to the satellite. Some are handheld, others are contained in briefcases and must be set up before operating. In addition to voice communication, some companies offer paging, fax and data transmission, although at slower speeds than a typical land-based dial-up connection. A few phones also integrate a terrestrial cellular phone in the same unit. Calls are typically expensive when compared to cellular telephone calls. All calls made through these systems are considered to be international calls, and each company has one or more country codes. If you need to use one of these phones, keep conversations short and to the point. While most of the phones are fairly simple to use, due to the wide variety of phones and services it is essential that users be fully trained in their use. Satellite Data Systems Satellite systems in use by public service agencies also vary greatly. Some are used for two-way data and voice communication, others for one-way reception of voice, data, or video. One popular system is the NOAA Emergency Management Weather Information System (EMWINS) system, which allows emergency management officials to obtain up-to-the-second weather maps and information. This system recently underwent a complete revision. If you were trained on the older system, you may need to be retrained. As with many other served agency systems, the agency will have to provide training in their use if they want you to be able to operate this equipment. Other Agency-Owned Equipment In addition to radio and telephone systems, you may need to use fax machines, copiers, computers, and similar devices. Since many of us use these items every day at work, learning their operation should not be a problem in most cases. However, some copiers and computer programs are quite complicated and may require instruction in their use. Computer software used in public safety applications is usually specially written for the purpose and may require extensive training in the rare situation where you will be required to use the system. Reference links: FCC -- Public Safety Radio Service: http://wireless.fcc.gov/publicsafety/ FCC Rules -- Ham Radio: www.arrl.org/FandES/field/regulations/rules-regs.html APCO -- www.apco911.org International Municipal Signal Association (IMSA): www.imsasafety.org/ Dispatch Magazine: www.911dispatch.com/ Project 25 -- www.project25.org Inmarsat -- www.inmarsat.com Globalstar -- www.globalstar.com iridium -- www.iridium.com Thuraya -- www.thuraya.com (United Arab Emirates) Motorola -- http://www.motorola.com/cgiss/networks.shtml Review: While some served agency systems may be familiar to Amateur Radio operators, others are not. Both equipment and procedures may vary greatly. If a served agency expects its emcomm volunteers to be able to operate any of its systems, specific training should be provided in advance.
Learning Unit 6 Basic Communication Skills Objective: This lesson introduces communication skills that are specific to emcomm operations, and helps you understand differences from normal Amateur Radio operations. Student preparation required: None Information: An emergency communicator must do his part to get every message to its intended recipient, quickly, accurately, and with a minimum of fuss. A number of factors can affect your ability to do this, including your own operating skills, the communication method used, a variety of noise problems, the skills of the receiving party, the cooperation of others, and adequate resources. In this unit, we will discuss basic personal operating skills. Many of the other factors will be covered in later units. Why Are Emergency Communication Techniques Different? Life and death communications are not part of our daily experience. Most of what we say and do each day does not have the potential to severely impact the lives and property of hundreds or thousands of people. In an emergency, any given message can have huge and often unintended consequences. An unclear message, or one that is modified, delayed, mis-delivered, or never delivered at all can have disastrous results. Listening Listening is at least 50% of communication. Discipline yourself to focus on your job and "tune out" distractions. If your attention drifts at the wrong time, you could miss a critical message. Listening also means avoiding unnecessary transmissions. A wise person once said, "A man has two ears and one mouth. Therefore he should listen twice as much as he talks." While you are asking, "when will the cots arrive?" for the fourth time that hour, someone else with a life and death emergency might be prevented from calling for help. Sometimes the job of listening is complicated by noise. You might be operating from a noisy location, the signal might be weak, or other stations may be causing interference. In each of these cases, it helps to have headphones to minimize local noise and help you concentrate on the radio signal. Digital Signal Processing (DSP), filters, and other technologies may also help to reduce radio noise and interference. Microphone Techniques Even something as simple as using your microphone correctly can make a big difference in intelligibility. For optimum performance, hold the mic close to your cheek, and just off to the side of your mouth. Talk across, rather than into, the microphone. This will reduce breath noises and "popping" sounds that can mask your speech. Speak in a normal, clear, calm voice. Raising your voice or shouting can result in over-modulation and distortion, and will not increase volume at the receiving end. Speak at a normal pace - rushing your words can result in slurred and unintelligible speech. Pronounce words carefully, making sure to enunciate each syllable and sound. Radios should be adjusted so that a normal voice within 2 inches of the mic element will produce full modulation. If your microphone gain is set so high that you can achieve full modulation with the mic in your lap, it will also pick up extraneous background noise that can mask or garble your voice. A noise-canceling microphone is a good choice since it blocks out nearly all unwanted background noise, and is available in handheld and headset boom mics. Headset boom microphones are becoming less expensive and more popular, but care should be taken to choose one with a cardioid or other noise canceling type element. Many low-cost headset boom mics have omni-directional elements, and will pick up extraneous noise. "Voice operated transmission" (VOX) is not recommended for emergency communication. It is too easy for background noise and off-air operator comments to be accidentally transmitted, resulting in embarrassment or a disrupted net. Use a hand or foot switch instead. When using a repeater, be sure to leave a little extra time between pressing the push-to-talk switch and speaking. A variety of delays can occur within a system, including CTCSS decode time, and transmitter rise time. Some repeaters also have a short "kerchunk" timer to prevent brief key-ups and noise from keying the transmitter. It also gives time for some handhelds to come out of the "power-saver" mode. Leaving extra time is also necessary on any system of linked repeaters, to allow time for all the links to begin transmitting. These techniques will ensure that your entire message is transmitted, avoiding time-wasting repeats for lost first words. Lastly, pause a little longer than usual between transmissions any time there is a possibility that other stations may have emergency traffic to pass from time to time. A count of "one, one thousand" is usually sufficient. Brevity & Clarity Each communication should consist of only the information necessary to get the message across clearly and accurately. Extraneous information can distract the recipient and lead to misinterpretation and confusion. If you are the message's author and can leave a word out without changing the meaning of a message, leave it out. If the description of an item will not add to the understanding of the subject of the message, leave it out. Avoid using contractions within your messages. Words like "don't" and "isn't" are easily confused. If someone else has drafted the message, work with the author to make it more concise. Make your transmissions sound crisp and professional, like the police and fire radio dispatchers and the air traffic controllers. Do not editorialize, or engage in chitchat. An emergency net is no place for "Hi Larry, long time no hear," "Hey, you know that rig you were telling me about last month...." or any other non-essential conversation. Be sure to say exactly what you mean. Use specific words to ensure that your precise meaning is conveyed. Do not say, "that place we were talking about," when "Richards School" is what you mean. Using non-specific language can lead to misunderstandings and confusion. Communicate one complete subject at a time. Mixing different subjects into one message can cause misunderstandings and confusion. If you are sending a list of additional food supplies needed, keep it separate from a message asking for more sand bags. Chances are that the two requests will have to be forwarded to different locations, and if combined one request will be lost. Plain Language As hams, we use a great deal of "jargon" (technical slang) and specialized terminology in our daily conversations. Most of us understand each other when we do, and if we do not on occasion it usually makes little difference. In an emergency, however, the results can be much different. A misunderstood message could cost someone's life. Not everyone involved in an emergency communication situation will understand our slang and technical jargon. Even terms used by hams vary from one region to another, and non-hams will have no knowledge of most of our terminology. Hams assisting from another region might understand certain jargon very differently from local hams. For these reasons, all messages and communications during an emergency should be in plain language. "Q" signals (except in CW communication), 10 codes, and similar jargon should be avoided. The one exception to this is the list of standard "pro-words" (often called "pro-signs") used in Amateur traffic nets, such as "clear," "say again all after" and so on. We will discuss some of these pro-words in detail below, and others later in this course. Avoid words or phrases that carry strong emotions. Most emergency situations are emotionally charged already, and you do not need to add to the problem. For instance, instead of saying, "horrific damage and people torn to bits," you might say "significant physical damage and serious personal injuries." Phonetics Certain words in a message may not be immediately understood. This might be the case with an unusual place name, such as "Franconia" or an unusual last name, like "Smythe." The best way to be sure it is understood correctly is to spell it. The trouble is, if you just spell the word using letters, it might still be misunderstood, since many letters sound alike at the other end of a radio circuit. "Z" and "C" are two good examples. For that reason, radio communicators often use "phonetics." These are specific words that begin with the letter being sent. For instance, "ARRL" might be spoken as "alpha romeo romeo lima." To reduce requests to repeat words, use phonetics anytime a word has an unusual or difficult spelling, or may be easily misunderstood. Do not spell common words unless the receiving station asks you to. In some cases, they may ask for the phonetic spelling of a common word to clear up confusion over what has been received. Standard practice is to first say the word, say "I spell," then spell the word phonetically. This lets the receiving station know you are about to spell the word he just heard. Several different phonetic alphabets are in common use, but most hams and public safety agencies use the ITU Phonetic Alphabet, shown below, and others use military alphabets. Many hams like to make up their own phonetics, especially as a memory aid for call signs, and often with humorous results. Unfortunately, this practice has no place in emergency communication. In poor conditions, unusual phonetic words might also be misunderstood. We need to be sure that what we say is always interpreted exactly as intended - this is why most professional communicators use standardized phonetics. ITU Phonetic Alphabet A - alfa (AL-fa) B - bravo (BRAH-voh) C - charlie (CHAR-lee) D - delta (DELL-tah) E - echo (ECK-oh) F - foxtrot (FOKS-trot) G - golf (GOLF) H - hotel (HOH-tell) I - india (IN-dee-ah) J - juliet (JU-lee-ett) K - kilo (KEY-loh) L - lima (LEE-mah) M - mike (MIKE) N - november (no-VEM-ber) O - oscar (OSS-cah) P - papa (PAH-PAH) Q - quebec (kay-BECK) R - romeo (ROW-me-oh) S - sierra (SEE-air-rah) T - tango (TANG-go) U - uniform (YOU-ni-form) V - victor (VIK-tor) W - whiskey (WISS-key) X - x-ray (ECKS-ray) Y - yankee (YANG-key) Z - zulu (ZOO-loo) Numbers are somewhat easier to understand. Most can be made clearer by simply "over-enunciating" them as shown below. One: "Wun" Two: "TOOO" Three: "THUH-ree" Four: "FOH-wer" Five: "FY-ive" Six: "Sicks" Seven: "SEV-vin" Eight: "Ate" Nine: "NINE-er Zero: "ZEE-row" Numbers are always pronounced individually. The number "60" is spoken as "six zero," not "sixty." The number "509" is spoken as "five zero nine," and not as "five hundred nine" or "five oh nine." Pro-words Pro-words, called "pro-signs" when sent in Morse Code or digital modes, are procedural terms with specific meanings. ("Pro" is short for "procedural.") They are used to save time and ensure that everyone understands precisely what is being said. Some pro-words are used in general communication, others while sending and receiving formal messages. We will discuss the general words here, and cover the formal message pro-words in a later unit. Voice Morse/Digital* Meaning and function Clear SK End of contact. In CW, SK is sent before final identification Over KN Used to let a specific station know to respond Go ahead K Used to indicate that any station may respond Out CL Leaving the air, will not be listening Stand by AS A temporary interruption of the contact Roger R Indicates that a transmission has been received correctly and in full * Two letters are sent as one character in CW Source: ARES Field Resources Manual Tactical Call Signs Tactical call signs can identify the station's location or its purpose during an event, regardless of who is operating the station. This is an important concept. The tactical call sign allows you to contact a station without knowing the FCC call sign of the operator. It virtually eliminates confusion at shift changes or at stations with multiple operators. Tactical call signs should be used for all emergency nets and public service events if there are more than just a few participants. If one does not already exist, the NCS may assign the tactical call sign as each location is "opened." Tactical call signs will usually provide some information about the location or its purpose. It is often helpful if the tactical call signs have a meaning that matches the way in which the served agency identifies the location or function. Some examples are: * "Net" - for net control station * "Springfield EOC" - for the city's Emergency Operations Center * "Firebase 1" - for the first fire base established, or a primary fire base * "Checkpoint 1" - for the first check point in a public service event * "Canyon Shelter" - for the Red Cross shelter at Canyon School * "Repair 1" - for the roving repair vehicle at a bike-a-thon * "Mercy" - for Mercy Hospital Calling with Tactical Call Signs If you are at "Aid 3" during a directed net and want to contact the net control station, you would say "Net, Aid 3" or, in crisper nets (and where the NCS is paying close attention), simply "Aid 3." If you had emergency traffic, you would say "Aid 3, emergency traffic," or for priority traffic "Aid 3, priority traffic." Notice how you have quickly conveyed all the information necessary, and have not used any extra words. If you have traffic for a specific location, such as Firebase 5, you would say "Aid 3, priority traffic for Firebase 5." This tells the NCS everything needed to correctly direct the message. If there is no other traffic holding, the NCS will then call Firebase 5 with, "Firebase 5, call Aid 3 for priority traffic." Note that no FCC call signs have been used so far. None are necessary when you are calling another station. Station Identification In addition to satisfying the FCC's rules, proper station identification is essential to promoting the efficient operation of a net. The FCC requires that you identify at ten-minute intervals during a conversation and at the end of your last transmission. During periods of heavy activity in tactical nets it is easy to forget when you last identified, but if you identify at the end of each transmission, you will waste valuable time. What to do? The easiest way to be sure you fulfill FCC station identification requirements during a net is to give your FCC call sign as you complete each exchange. Most exchanges will be far shorter than ten minutes. This serves two important functions: 1) It tells the NCS that you consider the exchange complete (and saves time and extra words) 2) It fulfills all FCC identification requirements. Completing a Call After the message has been sent, you would complete the call from Aid 3 by saying "Aid 3, <your call sign>." This fulfills your station identification requirements and tells the NCS that you believe the exchange to be complete. If the Net Control Station believes the exchange is complete, and Aid 3 had forgotten to identify, then the NCS should say, "Aid 3, do you have further traffic?" At that point, Aid 3 should either continue with the traffic, or "clear" by identifying as above. For this method to work properly, the NCS must allow each station the opportunity to identify at the close of an exchange. A Review of Habits to Avoid * Thinking aloud on the air: "Ahhh, let me see. Hmm. Well, you know, if..." * On-air arguments or criticism * Rambling commentaries * Shouting into your microphone * "Cute" phonetics * Identifying every time you key or un-key the mic * Using "10" codes, Q-signals on phone, or anything other than "plain language" * Speaking without planning your message in advance * Talking just to pass the time. Reference links: * The Public Service Communications Manual, please see www.arrl.org/FandES/field/pscm/index.html * ARRL ARES Field Resources Manual: http://www.arrl.org/FandES/field/aresman.pdf Review: Clear, concise communications save time, and reduce misunderstandings. Avoid any non-essential transmissions. Use tactical call signs to call other stations, and give your FCC call sign only at the end of the complete exchange, or every ten minutes during longer exchanges. Plain language is more easily understood by a wider range of people than most codes and jargon.
Introduction to Emergency Nets Objective: This lesson provides an overview of operations in a radio network, or "net" environment. It sets the stage for the following lessons, which present various aspects of net operation and message handling in greater detail. This lesson contains information that is appropriate for net operations in a variety of settings, and is representative of nets around the country. Local procedures may vary slightly. Student preparation required: Learn the following definitions: Net: A group of stations who gather on one frequency, with a common purpose. The net provides a structure and organization to allow an orderly flow of messages. Net Control Station (NCS): The station in charge of the net and directing the flow of messages and general communications. Formal Messages: Written messages that are sent in a standardized format. Informal or Tactical Messages: Brief verbal or informal written messages, intended for direct and immediate delivery. Traffic: A term referring to messages sent over Amateur Radio, usually formal, written messages. More generally, any messages or activity on a particular frequency. Pass: to send messages from one station to another. Third Party Traffic: Messages transmitted on behalf of a person or organization other than a licensed Amateur Radio operator. This term also applies to when a person other than a licensed operator is allowed to use the microphone. Liaison Station: A station responsible for passing messages between different nets. Information: What is an Emergency Net? The purpose of any net is to provide a means for orderly communication within a group of stations. An "emergency" net is a group of stations who provide communication to one or more served agencies, or to the general public, in a communications emergency. An emergency net may be formal or informal, depending on the number of participants and volume of messages. Net Formats Directed (formal) Nets: In a directed net, a "net control station" (NCS) organizes and controls all activity. One station wishing to call or send a message to another in the net must first receive permission from the NCS. This is done so that messages with a higher priority will be handled first, and that all messages will be handled in an orderly fashion. Directed nets are the best format when there are a large number of member stations. (Be careful not to confuse "formal nets" with "formal messages." There is no definite link between the two. A formal net may handle informal messages, and vice versa.) Open (informal) Nets: In an open net, the NCS is optional. Stations may call each other directly. When a NCS is used at all, he usually exerts minimal control over the net. The NCS may step in when the message volume increases for short periods, or to solve problems and keep the net operating smoothly. Open nets are most often used when there are only a few stations and little traffic. Types of Emergency Nets Emergency nets may have different purposes, and a given emergency may require one or more of each type of net. During a small operation, all functions may be combined into one net. A traffic net handles formal written messages in a specified (i.e. ARRL) format. The nets operated by the National Traffic System (NTS) are an excellent example of traffic nets. ARES or RACES traffic nets may be directed or open depending on their size. Tactical nets are used for real-time coordination of activities related to the emergency. This is a faster-moving, often less formal operation. Messages are usually brief, and frequently unwritten. A tactical net usually has a NCS, but may be directed or open. The NCS may have other duties or responsibilities as well. A "resource" or "logistics" net may be needed to acquire resources and volunteers and handle assignments. It is usually a directed net. Resource nets accept check-ins from arriving volunteers, who are then directed to contact an appropriate station or to proceed to a specific location. It might also be used to locate needed resources, such as equipment, food, water and other supplies for emcomm volunteers. An information net is usually an open net used to collect or share information on a developing situation, without overly restricting the use of the frequency by others. Net members send updated local information as needed, and official bulletins from the served agency may be sent by the NCS (if the net has one), an agency liaison station, or an Official Bulletin Station (OBS). The NCS and many of the participants monitor the frequency, but a "roll call" is seldom taken and stations may not be expected to check in and out of the net. The operation of an information net also serves as notice to all stations that a more formal net may be activated at any moment if conditions warrant. A good example is a SKYWARN weather net activated during a severe storm watch. Checking Into an Emergency Net There are two situations where you will need to "check in" to a net. When you first join the net. When you have messages, questions, or information to send. If you are part of the organization operating the net, simply follow the instructions for checking into directed and open nets as discussed below. To become part of a directed net, listen for the NCS to ask for "check-ins" and listen to any specific instructions, such as "check-ins with emergency traffic only." At the appropriate time, give only your call sign. If you have a message to pass, you can add, "with traffic." If it is an emergency message, say "with emergency traffic." The same is true for stations with priority traffic. Wait for a response before offering more information. Checking into a directed net when the NCS has not asked for check-ins is usually considered a bad practice. However, if a long period passes with no request, you might wait for a pause in the net s activity and briefly call the NCS like this: "Net control, W1FN, with traffic." To check in to an open net for the first time, briefly call the net control station as above. If there appears to be no NCS, call anyone on the net to find out if anyone is "in charge" and make contact with them. If you are already part of the net and have a message to send, simply wait for the frequency to be clear before calling another station, . If you are not part of the organization operating the net, do not just check in and offer to assist. Listen for a while. Be sure you have something specific to offer before checking in, (such as the ability to deliver a message close to your location when none of the regular net members can). If they really do seem to need help that you feel you can provide, you might check in briefly to ask if they have a "resource" net in operation, then switch to that frequency. If not, make a brief offer of assistance to the NCS. Do not be too surprised if you receive a cool reception to your offer of help. It is usually nothing personal. Emergency nets are serious business. Most emcomm managers prefer to deal with people with known training and capabilities, and with whom they have worked before. You may not have the experience, skills or official credentials they require and they have no way of knowing what your true capabilities are. Some emcomm managers will assign you as an apprentice, logger, or as a "runner". If you are given such an opportunity, take it! It is all good experience and a great way to introduce yourself to the group. Better yet, become involved with your local emcomm group now do not wait for the next disaster. Passing Messages: If you told the NCS you have traffic to send when you checked in, he will probably ask you to "list your traffic" with its destination and priority. After you send your list, the NCS will direct you to pass each message to the appropriate station in the net, either on the net frequency, or another frequency to avoid tieing up the net. When moving to another frequency to pass the message, always check to see if the frequency is in use before beginning. When you are asked by the NCS to send your message, the standard procedure is for the NCS to tell the receiving station to call the sending station. The entire exchange might sound like this: NCS: "W1AW, list your traffic." You: "W1AW, two priority for Springfield EOC, one welfare for the Section net." NCS: "Springfield EOC, call W1AW for your traffic." Springfield EOC: "W1AW, Springfield EOC, go ahead." You: "Number 25, Priority..." (After you have sent your messages to the Springfield EOC, the NCS will next direct the section net liaison station to call you for their message.) When you have finished, simply sign with any tactical call sign and your FCC call. (You will learn more about messages and message handling and "emergency," "priority," and other precedences later in this course.) "Breaking" the Net If the net is in progress, and you have emergency traffic to send, you may need to "break" into the net.. Procedures for doing this vary from net to net, but the most common method is to wait for a pause between transmissions and simply say, "Break, WA1ZCN." The NCS will say, "Go ahead WA1ZCN," and you respond, "WA1ZCN with emergency traffic." Checking Out of an Emergency Net Always let the NCS know when you are leaving the net, even if it is only for a few minutes. If the NCS believes you are still in the net, they may become concerned about your unexplained absence. This could result in someone being unnecessarily dispatched to check on your well-being. There are three reasons for checking out of (leaving) a net. The location of your station is closing. If the NCS has given you directions to close the location, simply acknowledge the request, and sign with your tactical call sign, if you are using one, and your FCC call sign. If the order to close has come from a local official, state that your location has been closed, along with the name and title of the official who ordered it, and sign off as above. Long "goodbyes" only tie up the net needlessly, and do not sound very professional. You need a break and there is no relief operator. Tell the NCS that you will be away from the radio for a certain length of time, the reason, and sign with your tactical call sign, if you are using one, and your FCC call sign. You have turned the location over to another operator. Tell the NCS that you have turned the station over to (give the new operator's name and FCC callsign), and that you are leaving. Sign with your tactical call sign, if you are using one, and your FCC call sign There are two special situations to be aware of: If you are asked by someone in authority, such as a law enforcement officer, to move your station, then move immediately and without argument. Notify the NCS of the situation at the first appropriate opportunity. If you are requested by someone in authority to turn off your radio, or to refrain from transmitting, do so immediately and without question. Do not notify Net Control until you have permission to transmit again, and can do so safely. There is usually a good reason for such a request. It may be an issue of security, or it may be a potential hazard, such as an explosive devise that could be triggered by RF energy. Levels of Nets: Network systems are often "layered" for greater operating efficiency. Some networks are designed to handle messages within specific areas, and others to handle messages between areas. Think of this much like you would the Interstate Highway System. Local messages (cars) travel between destinations directly on local nets ( local roads). When a message has to go to a distant city, it is passed to a regional net (state highway), and if it is really distant, to a long distance net (interstate highway). At the other end it is returned to regional, then local nets for delivery. What has been just described is the extensive National Traffic System (NTS), discussed further below. A similar structure can be used by ARES or RACES on a smaller scale. For instance, each city might have a local FM net. A county net would handle messages going from city to city. A section HF net would handle messages from county to county. Any net in such a system could have "liaison" stations to pass into the NTS any messages that need to travel out of the section. The Nets of the National Traffic System The National Traffic System (NTS) was created by the ARRL and authored by George Hart, W1NJM in 1949 to handle medium and long distance traffic. In an emergency, The National Traffic System can be used to provide a link from the area impacted by the emergency to the outside world. The National Traffic System is a hierarchical (layered) set of nets, beginning at the local level with the Local nets and continuing through the Section Nets, Region Nets, Area Nets, and finally the Transcontinental Corps. Messages are passed by assigned "liaison" stations between various nets as necessary to reach their final destination. These nets operate in carefully designed "cycles" that allow a message to move smoothly and efficiently from one net to the next across the country in 24 hours. Each message follows a pre-determined path to its destination. The details of NTS operation are quite complex and well beyond the scope of this course. To learn more about the NTS, visit the NTS section of the ARRL website or contact your Section Manager or NTS Section Traffic Manager. Non-Voice Nets Emergency nets may also use other modes of communication besides voice (phone). Traffic nets have used CW since the beginning of Amateur Radio, and it is still a viable option for long distance formal traffic. High speed CW nets can actually handle more messages per hour than most voice nets. Packet communication on VHF and UHF is often used for local communication where accuracy and a record of the message are required. HF digital modes such as AMTOR and PACTOR are used on long distance circuits. Many groups are now experimenting with emergency communication applications for newer modes such as PSK31 on HF and VHF/UHF bands. The latest end-to-end message handling system to get the attention of the emcomm community is WinLink 2000, an automatic system that blends radio and Internet transmission paths to permit rapid and seamless email message transfer to stations anywhere on Earth. For most emergencies, it will be possible for stations in the affected area to link to a WinLink 2000 Pactor node outside the affected area, allowing rapid contact with the outside world. Also new to emcomm, FNpsk is a novel Windows ® program designed to allow easy handling of ARRL format messges via PSK31. See the Reference Links section at the end of this unit for the Internet URL. Most CW nets are directed nets. Packet nets are not generally directed by a human, due the automatic "store and forward" nature of the mode, and are usually operated as open nets with no NCS. Reference links: To learn about NTS in your area, contact your Section Manager (SM), or Section Traffic Manager (STM). To locate your Section Manager (SM), see the ARRL Section Manager List at: www.arrl.org/field/org/smlist.html. For a list of ARES and NTS nets in your area, see The ARRL Net Directory: www.arrl.org/FandES/field/nets/ Winlink 2000 - www.winlink.org FNpack - www.w1fn.org - a Windows® packet radio terminal program designed for emcomm. FNpsk - www.w1fn.org - similar to FNpack, but for PSK-31 Review: Large nets are usually directed (formal) nets with a NCS in charge. Smaller nets may be "open" (informal), and a NCS is optional. Nets can serve many purposes, including passing formal messages, handling logistics, or passing informal tactical messages. Large emergencies may require more than one of each type of net - small emergencies may have one combined net. Medium and long distance messages are often handled by the National Traffic System (NTS).